Traditional African Religions

The traditional beliefs and practices of African people are highly diverse and include various ethnic religions. Followers of traditional African religions pray to various spirits as well as their ancestors. These secondary spirits serve as intermediaries between humans and the primary God. Most African societies believe in a single Supreme Creator God named Chukwu, Nyame, Olodumare, Ngai, Roog etc. Some recognize both a God and a Goddess.

The environment and nature are infused in every aspect of traditional African religions and culture. It is believed that natural phenomena and environment are intertwined. All aspects of weather, thunder, lightning, rain, moon, sun and stars are amenable to control through worship. The traditions of African religions are oral rather than scriptural.

Practitioners of traditional African religions in Sub–Sahara Africa are distributed among 43 countries and are estimated to be over 100 million. However, the largest religions in Africa are Christianity and Islam.

Common Ethical Principles among the Major Religions

Treatment of others

Deal with others as you would be dealt by. Do nothing to your neighbor which you would not have him do to you. – Mahabharata

What I do not want others to do to me; I do not want to do to them. – Confucius

You shall love your neighbor as yourself. – Hebrew Bible (Judaism)

The golden rule: “Treat others the way you would have them treat you: this sums up the law and the prophets”. – The New Testament (Christianity)

Charity

The wealthier man should give unto the needy.

Considering the course of life hereafter;

For riches are like chariot wheels revolving;

Now to one man they come, now to another.

Rig-Veda (Hinduism)

The more he gives to others,

The more he possess of his own.

Tao-te-Ching (Taoism)

If, however, there is a needy person among you…do not harden your heart and shut your hand against your needy kinsman. Rather you must open your hand and lend him sufficient for whatever he needs. – The Old Testament (Judaism)

It is more blessed to give than to receive. – The New Testament (Christianity)

They ask you of what they should give in charity. Tell them; “What you can spare of your wealth as benefit the parents and relatives, the orphans, the needy, the wayfarers, for God is not unaware the good deeds that you do” – The Quran (Islam)

Truth and Honesty

Seek the truth – Katha Upanishad (Hinduism)

Absolute truth is indestructible. Being indestructible it is eternal. – Confucius

Do not steal, do not deceive and do not lie to one another.- The Old Testament (Judaism)

The truth will set you free. –  The New Testament (Christianity)

Do not veil the truth in false hood, nor conceal the truth knowingly. – The Quran

Confucianism, Taoism and Shinto

Confucianism

Confucianism is described as a tradition, a philosophy, a way of governing, or simply a way of life. Confucianism developed from the teachings of the Chinese philosopher Confucius (551-479BCE).

The core value of Confucianism is humanistic, with particular emphasis on the importance of the family and social harmony. Confucianism rests on the belief that human beings are fundamentally good, teachable, improvable and perfectible. Confucian teachings focus on the cultivation of virtue and maintenance of ethics. Some of the basic Confucian ethical concepts and practices includes: ren (benevolence or humanness), yi-(righteousness) and zhi-(the ability to see what is right or fair) and Xin- integrity. Filial piety – respect for one’s parent and ancestors is another of key teachings of Confucius.

The Analects

The Analects (discourses or dialogues) is a collection of sayings by Confucius and his pupils pertaining to his teachings and deeds. It was probably put together by some of his pupils and their pupils between 475-221 BCE.

Confucius never claimed himself to be a prophet or a founder of a religion. He considered himself to be a gentleman. He believed in the original good nature of man. He made humanism the strongest driving force in China.

Taoism

Tao in Chinese literally means “The Way”. Taoism, also known as Daoism is religious and philosophical tradition of Chinese origin. It emphasizes living in harmony with the Tao. The three treasures of Taoism are: compassion, frugality and humility.

The roots of Taoism go back to at least to the 4^th century BCE. The Tao Ching, a compact book containing the teachings attributed to Laozi (Lao Tzu) is widely considered the keystone work of the Taoist tradition, together with the later writings of Zhuangzi. Taoism is severe critic of Confucianism. It differs from Confucianism by not emphasizing rigid social ritual and social order.

Ethics

Taoism tends to emphasize various themes of the I Ching, the Tao Te Ching and Zhuangzi. Some of the concepts of Taoism are:

Tao or dao– literally means “way”, but also interpreted as road, channel, path, or doctrine.

Wu-weI-, Wu- is no action and wei is deliberate action.

The three treasures of Taoism are:

Pinyin – usually translated as compassion;

Jian – usually translated as moderation,

Bugan wei tianxia xian – usually translated as humility.

Taoism does not have a creator god. However different branches of Taoism often have lesser deities. These deities along with ancestors are worshipped by the followers of Taoism.

Under the T’ang dynasty (618-906CE) Taoism was strongly supported by the government. During this period Chinese Buddhists were persecuted by the Taoists.

Shinto or Kami-no-michi

Shinto is the traditional religion of Japan that focuses on ritual practices in order to establish a connection between the present-day Japan and its ancient past. The word Shinto was adopted from Chinese word shin do meaning a “path”. The word Kami in Japanese means “spirit “or” god”. Kami can manifest in rocks, trees, animals, plants and even people.

Shinto practices were first recorded and codified in written form in the 8^th century CE. These writings do not refer to a unified religion, but rather to a collection of native beliefs and mythology. Nearly 80% of Japanese people participate in Shinto rituals of prayers and offerings to various deities housed in many Shinto shrines.

Sikhism

Sikhism (from Sikh- meaning “disciple “or a “learner”) is a religion that originated in the Punjab region of India at the end of the 15^th century. It is based on the teachings of Guru Nanak (1469-1539 CE), and the nine Gurus those succeeded him. Guru is a Sanskrit word and means” teacher” or “guide”. The Tenth Guru, Guru Gobind Singh named the Sikh scripture Guru Granth Sahib as his successor and forbade designating any more Guru.

Guru Nanak, the first Guru and the founder of Sikhism, like Sri Chaitanya (1486-1534) was a Bhakti saint. He taught that the most important form of worship is Bhakti. Sikhism rejects claims that any particular religious tradition has a monopoly on Absolute Truth.

The Sikh Scriptures use Hindu terminology extensively- Vedas, the gods and goddesses of Hindu Bhakti movement (Vishnu, Shiva, Pārbati, Lakshmi, Rama, and Krishna). It also refers to the spiritual concepts of Hinduism (Isvara, Bhagavan, and Brahman) and the concept of God in Islam (Allah) to assert that these are just alternate names for the “Almighty One” (Ik Onkar).

A person is defined as Sikh if he or /she faithfully believes in:

1-One God;

2-Ten Gurus

3- The teaching of the Guru Granth Sahib and the Ten Gurus.

A baptized Sikh is ritually required to wear five items, called the Five Ks. The five items are; Kes (uncut hair), Kanga (small wooden comb), Kara (iron bracelet), Kirpan (dagger or sword), and Kaccha(special undergarment).

Buddhism

Jainism and Buddhism represented protest against the Vedas and the Upanishads of the Hindus. Nevertheless, the two new religions and Hinduism lived side by side in India, down to ninth century CE. Eventually Buddhism lost ground in India, but spread to Sri Lanka, China, Japan, Mongolia, Korea, Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam and Myanmar. The famous Indian emperor Asoka (273-236 BCE) had much to do with this spread. Now, Buddhists represent 7-8% of the world’s population, the largest number are in China (about 250 million). In India, the birth place of Buddhism, the number of Buddhists is about 8.5 million.

Buddhism is a religion and dharma that encompasses a variety of beliefs and spiritual practices largely based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama (563-483 BCE). Two major branches of Buddhism are recognized by scholars: Theravada (Pali- the School of Elders) and Mahayana (Sanskrit-The Great Vehicle).

Buddhist Texts

Buddhism, like all Indian religions, was an oral tradition in ancient times. The first Buddhist canonical texts were likely written in Sri Lanka, after 400 years after the Buddha died. The texts were first of the Tipitakas (three baskets), and many version appeared there after claiming to be the words of the Buddha. There is no consensus among the different Buddhist traditions as to what constitutes the scriptures or a common canon in Buddhism. The Pali Tipitaka refers to the Vinaya Pitaka, the Sutta Pitaka, and the Abhidamma Pitaka. They were written between 350 BCE and 90 BCE.

The Four Noble Truths

The Four Truths express the basic orientation of Buddhism:

1-Dukkha (suffering)

Suffering exist where there is life.

2-The cause of suffering is desire

The cause of suffering, leading to endless rebirths, is desire (ichha), craving (tanha) and, thirst (tisna): the thirst for things, immortality, sensual pleasure, and worldly possession and power.

3-Release from pain can be achieved only by abandoning desire and non-attachment to things of the world.

4-The last truth concerns the way out of this suffering and rebirth.

To avoid the circle of suffering and rebirth, Buddhism prescribes, what is known as the Noble Eightfold Path.

• Right view
• Right intention
• Right speech
• Right action
• Right livelihood
• Right effort
• Right mindfulness and
• Right concentration

Buddhist Ethics (Sila)

It includes the Five Precepts for the lay people.

• Absent from killing(ahimsa);
• Abstain from stealing;
• Abstain from sexual misconduct;
• Abstain from lying;
• Abstain from drugs and alcohol.

The precepts are not commandments and transgressions do not invite religious sanctions. Devotion is an important part of the practice of Buddhism. Devotional practices include ritual prayer, prostration, offerings, chanting and pilgrimage.

Buddhism had a profound and permanent influence on Hinduism. It was from Jainism and Buddhism that Hindu acquired their respect for animal life and the concept of Ahimsa. The prohibition against eating meat is not Vedic in origin, but Buddhist. In some respect the Bhagavad Gita was composed to counter the influence of Buddhism on the Indian people.

Jainism

Jainism, traditionally known as Jain Dharma is one of the most ancient religions of India. Jainism has four to five million followers, with most of them residing in India.

Followers of Jainism are called “Jains” a word derived from the Sanskrit word jina(victor). Jains trace their history through a succession of twenty-four victorious saviors and teachers known as Tirthankara. The first Tirthankara Rishabhanatha is believed to have lived millions of years ago. Mahavira (599-527 BCE) is the twenty-four and the last Tirthankara. Most scholars believe that Mahavira was an older contemporary of the Buddha. Mahavira’s teachings were remarkably philosophical and not based on any scripture or divine revelation. He did not deny the existence of the gods; but denied their divinity.

Jainism holds that it is not necessary to assume the presence of a creator. The universe has existed from eternity and will continue to exist so. Matter is eternal. The infinite changes in the world are due to the forces inherent in nature and not due to any divine interference.

The sacred books of the Jains are called Agamas. They believed to have been verbally transmitted from one generation to the next, much like the Hindu texts, by oral traditions.

The Jains are divided into two major denominations: Digambara and Svetambara.  Monks of the Digambara tradition do not wear clothes and nuns wear only white sarees.

Jain ethics and five vows-

• Ahimsa, “ non-violence” or “ non -injury”;

To cause no harm to other human beings, as well as all other living beings. This is the highest ethical duty in Jainism.

• Satya – “truth”;

This vow is to always speak the truth, neither lie, nor speak what is not true or approve of any one who speaks the untruth.

• Asteya-“not stealing”;

A Jain layperson should not take anything that is not willingly given.

• Brahmacharya, “celibacy”;

Abstinence from sex and sensual pleasures is prescribed for Jain monks and nuns. For lay persons, the vow means chastity and faithfulness to one’s partner.

5-Aparigraha, “non-possessiveness”;

This includes non-attachment to material and psychological possessions, avoiding craving and greed. Jains monks and nuns completely renounce property and social relations.

Indian Sub-continent

Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism and Sikhism

Hinduism

Hinduism is an Indian religion, widely practiced in South Asia. It has been called the oldest religion in the world. Some scholars refer to it as Santana Dharma, the “eternal tradition”, or the “eternal way”. Scholars regard Hinduism as fusion or synthesis of various Indian cultures and traditions, with diverse roots.

Hinduism unlike Christianity or Islam does not have a founder or “the Scripture” like the Bible or the Quran. The major Hindu Scriptures includes; the Vedas and Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita and the Agamas. In Tantric tradition, the Agamas refer to the teachings of Shiva to Shakti.

Hinduism includes a diversity of ideas on spirituality and traditions. Hindus can choose to be polytheistic (believer of many gods), monotheistic (believer of one god), atheist (believe in no god) or humanist. Prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include the four goals of human life, namely Dharma (ethics/duty), Artha (prosperity), Kama (action, intent and consequences) and Moksha (liberation/ salvation). Hinduism prescribes the eternal duties, such as honesty, non-injury to living beings (ahimsa), patience, forbearance, self-restraints and compassion among others.

The four largest denominations of Hinduism are the Vaishnavism (worship of Vishnu), Shaivism (worship of Shiva), Shaktism (worship of Shakti or Devi) and Smartism (worship of all major deities).

Atheism in Hinduism

Atheism (disbelief in gods or God) has been a major view point in Hindu philosophy. In Indian philosophy, three schools of thoughts are commonly referred to as” nastika”for rejecting the doctrine of Vedas: Jainism, Buddhism and Charvaka. Among the various schools of Hindu philosophy, Samkhya, Yoga and Mimamsa while not rejecting the Vedas or the Brahman, typically reject a personal God, creator God, or a God with attributes.

Charvaka, a materialistic and atheistic school of Indian philosophy goes back to 6^th century BCE. It rejected metaphysical concepts like extracorporeal soul, reincarnation, the afterlife, the efficiency of religious rites, the concept of heaven and hell, accumulation of merit and demerit through performance of certain action. Charvakas also refused to ascribe supernatural causes to natural phenomena. Charvaka philosophy appears to have died out sometime after 1200 CE.

Ajivikas was a movement (extinct from 13^th century CE), whose founder was, Makkhali Gosala. Gosala was a contemporary of Mahavira and Gautama Buddha. Gosala and his followers denied the existence of a creator God.

“There is no heaven, no final liberation, nor any soul in another world. Nor do the actions of the four castes, orders etc., produce any real effect’.

• The Sarvadarsanasanghra, attributed to Brihaspati

In the sixth century BCE, two new religions arose in India; Jainism and Buddhism. Both the religions did not accept the authority of the Vedas and Upanishads and both rejected the Hindu rigid caste system. Both protested the priestly rituals and sacrifices of the time.

Iranian Religions

Zoroastrianism

Around 1000 BCE, Persia (modern day Iran) was settled by people called Amadai, Madai and Medes. As Indo-European they had probably come from the shores of the Caspian Sea. They worshipped the earth, the sun, their ancestors and some animals. They had many deities.

The great prophet of ancient Iran was Zarathustra. We do not know exactly when he lived but most scholars believe that he preached in the 5^th century BCE. Like Buddha, Zarathustra rebelled against the priests or Magi who prayed to multiple deities and offered sacrifices to them. Zarathustra announced to the world one supreme God, Ashura-Mazda as the creator of the world. Ashura means “Lord” and Mazda means “wise”. Ashura-Mazda was assisted by lesser gods-in the form of fire, water, wind, rain, sun and moon. Most scholars believe that the roots of Zoroastrianism dates back to the Indo-Iranian religious system of 2000 BCE. It was very similar to the Vedic religion of India. Zarathustra’s concept of one supreme God, heaven and hell and of free will influenced Judaism, Christianity and Islam.

The most important texts of Zoroastrianism are the writings of Zarathustra known as Gathas. The later followers called it Avesta and known in the west as Zend-Avesta.

Zoroastrian Ethics

Man’s duty, says Avesta, is three fold:

• To make him who is an enemy a friend;
• To make him who is wicked righteous; and
• To makes him who is ignorant learned.

The purpose of life is to make the world a better place by good thoughts, good deeds and being truthful.

Darius I, accepted the new doctrine of Zarathustra, declared war upon the old cult and magi and priesthood, and made Zoroastrianism the religion of the state. Later on the religion faded in Persia and finally eliminated by the Muslim invaders. Today Zoroastrianism survives in India, among a small Parsee community. They still study the ancient Scriptures, worship fire, earth, water and air and expose their dead in “Tower of Silence” to birds of prey lest burning or burial should defile the holy elements.

Islam

Islam is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion teaching that there is only one God (Allah) and Muhammad is a messenger of God. It is world’s second largest religion with over 1.8 billion followers. Followers of Islam are called Muslim. Islam teaches that God is merciful, all-powerful, and unique and the creator of the world and all life within it. The primary scriptures of Islam are the Quran and the Hadith. The Quran is viewed by Muslims as the verbatim word of God. The Hadith is an account of the teachings, actions and habits of Prophet Muhammad (570-632 CE).

Acts of Worship

There are five basic religious acts in Islam, collectively known as “The Pillars of Islam” which are obligatory for all believers. They are:

1-The creed (Shahada),

“I testify that there is no god but God. Muhammad is the messenger of God”. Muslims must repeat the shahada in prayer.

2-Prayer ( Salat)

When possible all Muslims should pray five times a day.

3-Charity (Zakat)-alms

It is considered religious obligation (as opposed to voluntary charity) that the well–off owe to the needy 2.5% of annual capital asset.

4-Fasting

Fasting from food and drink, among other things must be performed from dawn to dusk during the month of Ramadan. Fast is to encourage a feeling of nearness to God.

5- Pilgrimage

Every able-bodied Muslim who can do it must make a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in her/ his lifetime.