Dr Saheb Sahu

The 189 member states of the United Nations set a target to bring the share of the people living on less than $1.25 a day (definition of extreme poverty) to half its 1990 level by 2015. Surprisingly, given the size of the task, it was met and then some: 1.2 billion people from around the world, escaped extreme poverty in those 25 years, bringing the global poverty rate down from 43% to 13%. A booming China accounted for two-third of the decline; India and Indonesia did much of the rest.

 Since 2015 the rate of poverty reduction has slowed sharply, to quarter of its previous pace. Roughly one in ten of the world’s population, or 830 million are still destitute today. The no is one in six in India (about 234 million).

 One problem is no one knows exactly who is below the poverty line and by how much. One solution would be a universal basic income (UBI) meaning payment to everyone, no matter how much they earn. Applied to the poor world at the level of $2.15 (new definition of extreme poverty) per day, this would cost 2-3% of global GDP (gross domestic products) each year. Most of the 130 countries with cash-transfer programmes rely on “proxy- mean tests”, using crude indicators. But the programmes are flawed.

 Ending extreme poverty therefore comes down to identifying who needs what. A recent paper by Roshni Sahoo of Stanford University and co-authors proposes a newer way to do so. Using data from 23 countries, they simulated a setting with limited information and asked how cash transfer should be allocated to drive poverty as low as possible. Rather than trying to predict who is poor, their method uses a machine-learning algorithm to assign cash-transfer amounts-different for each person-so as to minimize the chance that anyone remains in poverty after receiving the transfer. In other words, it targets the poverty gap, and not the poverty line. In principle, this means giving poor people enough cash to push them over the poverty line. For example- if someone earns $2 a day and the poverty threshold is $3 a day, they will receive $1 more per day in cash-transfer and not $3 a day.

 The result is surprisingly a small bill. The paper’s estimates suggest it would cost $318 billion dollars a year to reduce global poverty rate to 1% at the rate of $2.15- a day line (present definition of extreme poverty) – roughly 0.3% of global GDP. That is less than a third of what the world spends on alcohol. (The Economist)

Indian Context

According to the World Bank’s estimates (2025 data), the extreme poverty rate in India is 5.3%. This is the first time that India’s poverty rate is lower than the global average of 10.8%. Bangladesh’s poverty rate is 5.9%, similar to India. China and Vietnam are reported to have eliminated extreme poverty.

 However, Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) shows that roughly 11.28% of Indians are considered poor. The Global MPI goes beyond income to identify how people experience poverty. It measures ten criteria of deprivation, in health, education and living standard. Based on MPI the poverty rate of Kerala is 0.48%.

Odisha Context

MPI in 2023, for Kerala was 0.48%, Tamil Nadu 1.43%, West Bengal 8.6%, Odisha 11.07%, UP 17.4% and Bihar 26.59%.

 The problem with Odisha’s poverty statistic is its wide diversity. The district of Puri has a poverty rate of 3.29%, Nabarangpur 68.7%, and Rayagada 48%.  The Coastal districts are doing relatively well but the multidimensional poverty indices for the rest of Odisha are totally unacceptable, especially for the tribal districts.

What should government of Odisha do to reduce its poverty rate to below 1%?

The GDP of Odisha for 2025-26, is estimated to be 210, 186 crores rupees, an increase of 8.8% over 2024-25. The projected budget surplus is 3.0% of the GDP. Based on the recent published study of Roshni Sahoo and her colleagues of Stanford University, it will take 0.3% of Odisha’s GDP to eliminate extreme poverty. The government of Odisha has projected budget surplus of 3% for 2026. The government of Odisha’s developmental officials should read her published paper and convince the government to allocate at least 1% of Odisha’s GDP to a cash-transfer program for the poor, irrespective of their caste, religion, sex and place of residence. The Government should utilize the current method of Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT) and continue it for next few years until Odisha’s poverty rate falls below 1%.

 Conclusion

It is absolutely possible to eliminate extreme poverty in Odisha. The state of Kerala close to Odisha’s population, with minimal industries or minerals has done it. It is not a question of money. The money is there. It is a question of will. I am hoping, the present government will have the WILL!! I will conclude with a brief quote from a man from Kenya talking to a reporter:

“Don’t ask me what poverty is because you have met it outside my house. Look at the house and count the number of holes. Look at my utensils and the clothes I am wearing. Look at everything and write what you see. What you see is poverty”

                                                                                                    -A poor man, Kenya, 1997

References

1- What it would cost to end extreme poverty? The Economist, April 11, 2026, p-67

2-Roshni Sahoo ET all- What it would cost to end extreme poverty. The National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER). Www. nber.org

3-NITI Aayog National Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) Progress Review 2023.

www.niti.gov.in

PS- Dr Saheb Sahu is a farmer son and a village boy from district Bargarh, Odisha. He is a graduate of AIIMS (New Delhi). He has been settled in US since 1970. He was an expert member of WODC for six yearsand a promotor and MD of Kalinga Hospital, Bhubaneswar, for 4 years. He has visited most of the districts in Odisha. He has been writing about Odisha’s poverty since 2002. His last book “What Can Be Done for Odisha’s Abject Poverty” was published in 2009. His other writings about education, health and fitness, poverty, religion, and reading of books, can be found in Odishawatch.in

The End

Dr Saheb Sahu

The Ecclesiastes is one of the most philosophical books in the Hebrew Bible (The Old Testament). The word “Ecclesiastes” is derived from the Greek word ekklesia. It is the Greek translation of the Hebrew title Qoheleth, meaning “assembler”, “collector”, or “preacher”. It is believed to have been composed between 480-80BCE. The exact name of the author is unknown. Traditionally it is attributed to King Solomon. It stands apart from other biblical writings due to its reflective, almost skeptical tone. Rather than offering straightforward moral instructions, Ecclesiastes wrestles with life’s deepest questions: What is the purpose of human existence? Does anything truly matters? How should one live in a world marked by uncertainty and impermanence?

 At the heart of Ecclesiastes lies it’s most famous refrain: “Vanity of vanities; all is vanity”. The word “vanity”, often translated from the Hebrew word “hevel”, literally meaning something fleeting, elusive, vapor like or vanity. The King James Version of the Bible has translated it as “vanity”. The author – observes that human achievements, wisdom, wealth, and even righteousness seem ultimately temporary (not unlike the Buddha). No matter how much one accumulates or accomplishes, time erases all distinctions. The wise and the foolish, the rich and the poor, all share the same fate: death.

 One of the striking features of Ecclesiastes is its realism. The author does not shy away from life’s injustices. He notes that good people sometimes suffer while the wicked prosper. Hard work does not always lead to success, and chance often governs outcomes. It forces readers to confront the unpredictability of life.

Yet, despite its somber tone, it is not a work of despair. Instead, it offers a subtle and profound form of wisdom. Since life is uncertain, the author encourages a humble acceptance of one’s limitations. Rather than striving endlessly, individuals should appreciate the simple, immediate joys of life- eating, drinking, companionship, and meaningful work.

Another important theme in Ecclesiastes is the limitation of human wisdom. The author concludes that wisdom cannot fully explain the mysteries of existence. The wisdom involves recognizing what cannot be known.

Ecclesiastes continues to resonate across cultures and beliefs. Its themes echo the theme of Carvaka philosophers of India and some of the teachings of the Buddha. Carvaka (also known as Lokayata) philosophy of India goes back to first millennium BCE. Carvaka philosophy goes even further than Ecclesiastes, by rejecting religious authority altogether-denying the validity of the Vedas, the afterlife, karma and unseen spiritual realms. According to them, the only reality is the material world. Consciousness ends with death; there is no soul that survives. Its main idea: “as long as you live, live happily”. Gautama Buddha grapples with suffering, impermanence and the limits of human understanding. While Ecclesiastes does not provide a solution, Buddha diagnoses the cause of suffering (Craving) and provides a treatment (the Eightfold Paths).

 Greek philosopher Epicurus (341-270 BCE) also recognized the instability of fortune and the inevitability of death, urging individuals to free themselves from fear of divine punishment and afterlife.

How to interpret the symbols in the Bibles quotes – For example – ECC: 1-4. Ecc – means Book of Ecclesiastes, 1- means-chapter I, 1-4 means line 1 to 4.

Some quotations from the Book of Ecclesiastes:

Reflection of a Royal Philosopher

Vanity of vanities, says the Teacher,

vanity of vanities! All is vanity.

What do people gain from all the toll

at which they toll under the sun?

 A generation goes, and a generation comes,

but the earth remains forever. (1; 2-4)

 What has been is what will be,

and what has been done is what will be done;

there is nothing new under the sun. (1:9)

 For in much wisdom is much vexation,

and those who increase knowledge increase sorrow. (1:18)

Everything Has Its Time

For everything there is a season, and a time for every matter under the heaven:

a time to be born and a time to die;

a time to plant, and a time to pluck up what is planted;

 a time to kill, and a time to heal,

 a time to break down and a time to build up;

a time to weep and a time to laugh;

a time to mourn and a time to dance. (3; 1-4)

…

  a time to love, and a time to hate;

a time for war, and a time for peace. (3; 8)

..

All go to one place;

all are from the dust, and all turn to dust again. (3:20)

  Humility and Contentment

The lover of money will not be satisfied with money; nor the lover of wealth, with gain. This also is vanity. (5:10)

A Disillusioned View of Life

A good name is better than precious ointment,

and the day of death, than the day of birth.

 It is better to go to the house of mourning,

than to go to the hose of feasting;

 for this is the end of everyone,

and the living will lay it to heart. (7; 1-2)

 Do not be quick to anger,

for anger lodges in the bosom of fools. (7:9)

The Riddle of Life

Do not be too righteous, and do not act too wise; why should you destroy yourself?

Do not be too wicked, and do not be a fool; why should you die before your time? (7; 16-17)

Miscellaneous Observations

Whoever digs a pit will fall into it;

and whoever breaks through a wall will be bitten by a snake.(10:8)

Feasts are made for laughter;

wine gladdens life,

and money meets every need. (10:19)

The Value of Diligence

In the morning sow your seed and at evening do not let your hands be idle; for you do not know which will prosper, this or that, or whether both alike will be good. (11:6)

Youth and Old Age

Light is sweet and it is pleasant for the eyes to see the sun.

Even those who live many years should rejoice in them all; yet let them remember that the days of darkness will be many. All that comes is vanity.

Rejoice Young man while you are young, and let your heart cheer you in the days of your youth. Follow the inclination of your heart and the desire of your eyes, but know that for all these things God will bring you into judgment.

Vanish anxiety from your mind, and put away pain from your body; for youth and the dawn of life are vanity. (11-:8-9)

Conclusion

As you can see from the above description, the reflective skepticism expressed in the Ecclesiastes is not necessarily new. It has been done by the Indian, Greek and Roman Philosophers. The Book of Ecclesiastes is only seven and half pages-long. I strongly urge all of you to read it. You will love its beautiful language and learn something from it.

 References

1- The Holy Bible. New Revised Standard Version. Holman Bible Publishers, Nashville, Tennessee. 1989. Pages- 536-543

2-ChatGpt

Dr Saheb Sahu

Myth- a widely held but false belief or idea.

Meritocracy is a system or social order in which position of power, success, and advancement are awarded based on individual merit, typically measured by factors like talent, ability, intelligence, and effort, rather than by birth, wealth, social class, or personal connection. In simple terms: A meritocracy believes that most qualified and hardworking individuals should rise to the top, regardless of their background.

The term was coined by British sociologist Michael Young in his 1958 satirical book “The Rise of the  Meritocracy”, where he warned that such a system could become just unfair as aristocracy- if it ignored structural inequalities.

The first Indian Civil Service Exam as conducted in U.K. in 1855. After India’s independence, in 1950, it became the Indian Administrative Service (IAS). All the present competitive exams in India follow the IAS format with various modifications. The entire competitive exams like the IIT-JEE, AIIMS-NEET, UPSCs, to corporate recruitment, the assumption is that the “best” rise to the top. However, this ideal often masks the deep social and economic inequalities that influence opportunities in India. In reality, the idea of a level playing field is a myth. Merit, as it is commonly understood in India, is not just about individual ability; it is deeply shaped by caste, economic class, gender, and access to resources. The booming coaching industry in India is accessible only to the urban rich. In these centers students spend lakhs of rupees on coaching, while the rural poor have no access to them. The ability to perform well in all the Indian competitive exams is thus more reflective of socioeconomic privilege than raw talent.

Historical and Structural Inequalities in India

The Caste System

India’s social fabric is deeply intertwined with its caste system. It is a legacy that historically denied lower caste communities access to education, wealth, and opportunists. Even after decades of reservation and quota, people from SC, ST, and OBC continue to face discrimination.  For example, a student from a rural and poor background competing with someone who has had access to elite English Medium School, private coaching, and supportive environment is hardly on a level playing field.

Gender Discrimination

Women in India, particularly from conservative or rural backgrounds, face additional hurdles. Patriarchal norms restrict their educational and professional choices, and their social mobility. In 2024, less than 20% of IITs students were female.  In medical colleges, they are about 45% of admitting class. Even highly qualified women often struggle in male-dominated fields, facing both open and subtle discrimination.

Economic, Rural and Urban, and Language Biases

Meritocracy in India is also complicated by language and economic inequalities. English medium education is a gateway to better opportunity, sidelining students educated in regional language only. Similarly, students from urban areas have better access to infrastructures like internet, computer labs, better schools and colleges giving them an advantage over rural students. Poor students from rural areas have no accessor limited access to them.

The Role of Nepotism and Cronyism

In both private and public sectors, in India (like everywhere else), connections and influence frequently trumps competence. Government contracts are awarded to politically connected people. Political tickets are often given to sons and daughters of older politicians. Corporate hiring often relies on connections. From Bollywood to corporate houses and civil service, who you know can matter more than what you know.

What Real Merit Should Mean?

Meritocracy should not just be about exam scores and degrees. It should also include someone’s background, how hard has someone worked, what difficulties they have overcome, and what potential they have. But for that to happen, Indian society needs to create equal opportunities first.

 That means:

. Better public schools and colleges for all, especially for rural students

.More scholarships and other support for poor students

. More support for women, minorities groups and economically disadvantage students.

 Conclusion

I will conclude this article with a brief personal story. I am the youngest of three brothers whose parents farmed about 5 acres of non-irrigated land in Bargarh district of Odisha, India. They grew one crop of paddy, sugarcane, jute, potato, onion and some seasonal vegetables. In those days, because of lack of water, there were no double crops. We always had enough food to eat, mostly rice, lentils, some seasonal vegetables and occasional fish or goat meat. Our village of about 800 people had no electricity, running water but had an elementary school (up to 3rd grade).Somehow to our good fortune, our parents decided to educate all three of their children. My eldest brother was a good student and graduated at the top in his class at George High School, Bargarh. Because lake of money, he could not attend college and joined the Indian Postal Department as a clerk. By passing many departmental exams, he got multiple promotions and retired as Postal Superintendent. My middle brother could not even attend high school as my parents did not have the money to keep two of their sons at hostel at the same time. He became a vaccinator, health inspector, tea agent, drug agent and later on opened drug stores at Sambalpur and Rourkela. Later on,he also became a drug whole seller. Both of my brothers financed my education from middle school to all the way to medical college.

 I attended our village Elementary School, Kamgaon Government Middle School, C. S. Zila School, and G. M. College at Sambalpur. I was a good student and got merit scholarship from 5^th grade through my medical college days. During my premedin 1964, I was admitted to Burla Medical College (now VSS Medical College) based on my good grades. No entrance exam was required. I heard about AIIMS (New Delhi- there was only one AIIMS then) from one of my class mates and applied for it. I had to go to Kolkata to appear for the entrance exam. Fortunately for me, I was admitted to AIIMS, solely based on my entrance exam result. There was no interview. I had no connection of any kind. After graduating from AIIMS with a MBBS degree I migrated to USA in June, 1970 for higher studies but stayed. I had a successful teaching and private practice career and did well in USA.  My family has prospered in America. My wife and I have been able to help our extended families. We have also promoted girls education and tree planting in Bargarh District of Odisha.

 Let us analyze my career trajectory.  It is true that I was a meritorious student and attended good schools and colleges. I was able to migrate to America and have lived a successful life. But did I do it just because I was a meritorious student? Did I not attend government funded schools and the top medical college in India? Did I not get financial help from my brothers and the government of Odisha in the form of merit scholarship and student loan? Did I not get help from my parents, brothers, and my teachers? To assume that we are successful in life because of our merit is outright wrong! There is a well-known African Proverb that says: “It takes a village to raise a child”. It is quite true. Here the village means; parents, relatives, communities and sometimes the government.

The idea meritocracy in India is comforting, especially for those who are already doing well. It lets them believe that they succeeded purely on their own, and blame those who did not for not being smart enough.  But the truth is lot more complicated. Until we fix the unfair systems that hold people back, we cannot truly call ourselves a merit-based society. To be fair, no country in the world is 100% merit –based. Contrives who come close are Singapore, Finland, Sweden, Norway, Denmark and Canada.

PS- Dr Saheb Sahu is a 1969 graduate of AIIMS (New Delhi) and retired pediatrician settled in USA.

Source

1-Chat GPT

2- Wikipedia.org

Dr Saheb Sahu

The word “proto”comes from the Greek word protos, meaning “first” or “earliest”. In modern usage “proto” is prefix used to indicate something that is original, primitive, or an early form of something else.

Proto-Indo-European (PIE) is hypothetical, reconstructed ancestor of the Indo-European language family, which includes languages spoken by nearly half of the world’s population today. They include:

1- Indo-Iranian (Indo-Aryan):

. Ancient: Sanskrit and Prakrits

.Modern: Hindi, Bengali, Urdu, Punjabi, Marathi, Gujarati, Odia, Nepali, Sinhala, etc.

.Iranian

.Ancient: Avestan, Old Persian

.Modern: Persian (Farsi), Kurdish, Pasto, Balochi, Tajik

2- Hellenic

Greek

Ancient and Modern Greek

3- Italic

Latin- Modern descendants: Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Romanian, Catalan, etc.

4- Celtic

.Ancient: Gaulish, Old Irish

.Modern: Irish, Scottish, Gaelic, Welsh, Breton, Cornish, Manx

5- Germanic

.Ancient: Gothic, Old Norse, Old English, Old High German

. Modern: English, German, Dutch, Danish, Swedish, Norwegian, Icelandic, Faroese

6- Balto-Slavic

Baltic: Lithuanian, Latvian,

Slavic: Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian, Polish, Czech, Slovak, Bulgarian, Macedonian

No written record of PIE exists. Scholars believe that PIE was likely spoken between 4500 BCE, and 2500 BCE on the Eurasian steppes, possibly near present-day Ukraine or Southern Russia.

While it is not clear precisely why PIE was able to establish such a wide domain, Ms.Spinney, the author of “Proto”suggests that commerce likely played a role. By 4500 BCE, commodities such as gold, copper and salt were moving among the vast track of network centered on the Black Sea. PIE may have spread thanks to its association with these valuable luxuries.

By 3500 BCE, however, cooler temperature, long periods of draughts and endemic warfare, led to large scale migration. PIE evolved and fragmented into 12 interrelated branches across Europe, Central Asia and India. The study of ancient DNA has confirmed this migration pattern.

Thinkers from Dante (1265-1321) to Leibniz (1646 -1716) had long noticed peculiar similarities among languages from far flung places. But it was not until 1786, when William Jones, a British judge stationed in India, proposed the link among Latin, Greek and Sanskrit that the idea of a common lingual ancestor was taken seriously. Since then, researchers have developed a hypothetical vocabulary for PIE that consists of 1,600 word stems, which form the basis of our most common words. For example, the English word “father”, the Latin “pater” and the Sanskrit “pitr”, all reflect a common PIE root “pater”.

Some other examples of PIE roots

.PIE- mehter (mother)

.English – mother

. Sanskrit-matr

. Greek – meter

PIE root: dekmt (ten)

.English: ten

. Latin: decem

.Greek: deka

. Sanskrit: dasa

. Russian: desya

PIE root: word (water)

.English; water

.German: wasser

. Sanskrit: udaka, jala, nira

. Russian: voda

In conclusion, Proto-Indo European is not just a language but a key to understanding a significant portion of the world’s linguistic and cultural heritage. Scholars continue to uncover the story of PIE and its enduring legacy in the modern world. We are all inter-connected.

Sources

1- Laura Spinney. Proto. Bloomsbury, New York; 2025

2- Chat GPT

Dr Saheb Sahu

                                 I find the term “race” pretty useless.

                                                             Luca Cavalli-Sforza, Population Genetist at Stanford University

Introduction

The concept of “race” has long been a powerful and controversial concept in human society. Often used to categorize people based on physical characteristics such as skin color, facial features, or hair texture, race has historically been treated as a scientific reality. However, contemporary research in genetics, anthropology, and sociology has made it increasingly clear that race is not a biological or scientific concept but rather a social construct with no firm basis in science. Biologically the use of race is no longer a valid scientific concept, according to University of Pennsylvania physical anthropologist Soloman Katz (1996). “Pure races” do not exist now and probably never did.”- American Association of Physical Anthropologists.

Scientific Understanding of Human Variation

Modern genetic has demonstrated that all human beings share more than 99.9% of their genetic materials (DNA). The slight variations that do exist are not significant enough to divide humanity into distinct biological races. Genetic differences among individuals of the so called “race” can be greater than those between individual of different “races”. For instance, two people from Africa may be more genetically different from each other than either is from someone in Europe or Asia.

Race is Only Skin Deep

Evidence from multiple studies has shown that “race” is only skin-deep. Below the surface liesa range of genetic variability that shows no link to skin color or other superficial physical traits.

 For example, the sickle cell anemia trait, long viewed (In America) as something found in black people has also been found among some southern Europeans but not found in some South African tribes. The Rh- negative blood type is found most often in the Basque people of France and Spain, also surfaces among North Africans but not among South Africans.

 There are some superficial traits like skin color and body builds, they are striking, and we notice them. That is what misleads us. It makes us thinks races are different. They are not when we look under the skin. For example, scientists have found biggest differences between African and Australian aboriginal people. Yet most Australian aboriginal people have skin color as black as Africans.

 Skin color or facial features of Asian people, for example, have developed overtime as a response to climate.  Darker skin protects against the harmful effects (like skin cancer) of strong sunlight. A flat nose and eyelid skin fold seen in people of Mongolian descends (Mongolia, China, Korea, and Japan) are adaptations to freezing weather of Siberian populations. But none of these superficial adaptations show a link to other underlying genetic traits.

Historical Origins of the Concept of Race

The concept of race emerged during the colonial era as a tool for justifying slavery, imperialism, and social hierarchy. European colonizers used pseudo-scientific theories to argue that non –European people were inherently inferior, have low IQ, uncivilized, non-Christians and thus suited to be conquered, ruled, converted and enslaved.

 Notably such ideas were used to support eugenics movement. The eugenics movement was a social and pseudo-scientific movement, most influential in the late 19^th and early 20^th centuries that aimed to improve the genetic quality of the human population. It had two key factors: Positive Eugenic and Negative Eugenics. Positive Eugenics promoted reproduction of people considered intelligent, healthy, or morally upright. Negative Eugenics – promoted sterilizations or even euthanasia for those with disabilities, mental illness, or criminal records. Hitler’s concept of superior Aryan race was based on the Eugenics Movement, then prevalent in Europe and America. The Nazis used this idea to justify anti-Semitism, and racism and ultimately the Holocaust. The total number of people killed during the Holocaust is estimated to be between 11 and 17 million.

Ironically, actual linguistic and DNA evidence shows that ancient Indo- Aryan came from regions in Central and Southern part of Asia- not from Northern Europe and had no connection to modern Germans. The word “Aryan” comes from the ancient Indo-Iranian root. In Sanskrit it means “noble” or “respectable”. In Old Persian “ariya” refers to the people of the Iranian plateau. In the 19^th century, European linguists used “Aryan” to describe the group of people who spoke the early Indo-European languages. The Nazis further distorted the term to promote the idea of a superior race, typically identified with Northern Europeans.  This usage has no linguistic, historical, or scientific basis and is widely discredited today.

Aryan vs. Dravidian

Modern genetic and archeology studies have shown that the Aryan invasion of North India, theory is completely false. It is true that people from southern steppe migrated to India as pastoralists (animal herders). They were not invaders. They were mostly men. Genetic studies show that all Indians, whether from the north or south, share a complex ancestry with both Ancestral North Indians (ANI) and Ancestral South Indians (ASI) genes. Despite being discredited scientifically, the Aryan-Dravidian theory still influences Indian politics, identity, and caste debates.

Race as a Social Construct

Although the concept of race lakes scientific legitimacy, it remains as powerful social reality. Society continues to treat people differently based on perceived racial categories. These categories are deeply embedded in institutions, culture, and law. As a result, racial identities shape people’s experiences, opportunities, and treatment in the world.

 Sociologists and anthropologists emphasize that while race is not a biological fact, it has real consequences. Racial discrimination, systemic inequality, and cultural identity are all influenced by how race is socially constructed and maintained.

Conclusion

Race is not a scientific concept grounded in biology or genetics, but a social construct, propagated by the colonizers. Scientific research has shown conclusively that human genetic diversity does not support the classification of people into biologically distinct races. Yet the idea of race continues to shape societies in powerful ways. Understanding race as a social, rather than scientific, phenomenon is essential to addressing the injustices and inequalities that stem from the present thinking about race. We are all African-Asian-European and American!

P.S. If you substitute the word “caste” in place of “race”, all the points made in the article for race will apply to caste. There is no genetic basis for caste.

Sources

1- Chat-Gpt May, 26, 2025

2- ‘Race’ Is Not A Valid Scientific Concept by Donna Alvarado in Genetic And Influence. Greenhaven Press: San Diego, 1996, p- 148

                                                                       The End