Dr Saheb Sahu
Skepticism, also spelled scepticism, is a questioning attitude or doubt toward knowledge claims that are seen as mere belief or dogma. Formally, skepticism is a topic of interest in philosophy. More informally, skepticism as an expression of questioning or doubt can be applied to any topic, such as politics, religion, or pseudoscience. Skepticism has been responsible for many important developments in science and philosophy. It has also inspired several contemporary social movements. Religious skepticism advocates for doubt concerning basic religious principles, such as immortality, providence, and revelation. Scientific skepticism advocates for testing beliefs for reliability, by subjecting them to systemic investigation using the scientific method to discover empirical evidence for them.
Philosophy
As a philosophical school or movement, skepticism arose both in ancient Greece and India. In India, the Ajnana School of philosophy espoused skepticism. It was a major early rival of Buddhism and Jainism, and a possibly major influence on Buddhism. A strong element of skepticism is found in Early Buddhism, most particularly in the Atthakavagga sutra. Since skepticism is a philosophical attitude and a style of philosophizing rather than a position, the Ajñanins may have influenced other skeptical thinkers of India such as Nagarjuna, Jayarasi Bhatta and Shriharsha.
In Greece philosophers as early as Xenophanes (c. 570– c. 475 BCE) expressed skeptical views, as did Democritus and a number of Sophists. Socrates also had skeptical tendencies, claiming to know nothing worthwhile.
Pyrrhonism is an Ancient Greek school of philosophical skepticism which rejects dogma and advocates the suspension of judgement over the truth of all beliefs. It was founded by Anesidemus in the first century BCE, and said to have been inspired by the teachings of Pyrrho of Elis in the fourth century BCE.
Pyrrho was born at Elis about 360 BCE. He traveled to India with Alexander’s army, studied under the “Gymnosophists” there, and perhaps learned from them something of the skepticism for which his name became synonym. Returning to Elis, he lived in serene poverty as a teacher of philosophy. He was too modest to write books, but his pupil Timon of Phlius, sent Pyrrho’s opinions abroad into the world. These opinions are basically three: that certainty is unattainable, that a wise man will suspend judgment and seek tranquility rather than truth, and that, since all theories are probably false, one might as well accept the myths and conventions of his time and place. Neither senses nor reason can give us sure knowledge; the senses distort the object in perceiving it, and reason is merely the sophist servant of desire. For every reason has a corresponding reason opposed to it. It is foolish to take sides in dispute. All desires are delusion. Even life is an uncertain good, death is not a certain evil; one should have no prejudices against either of them. Best of all is calm acceptance. According to Durant, Pyrrho tried sincerely to live this half-Hindu philosophy. (Durant)
Pyrrhonism is best known today through the surviving works of Sextus Empiricus, writing in the late second century or early third century CE.The publication of Sextus’ works in the Renaissance ignited a revival of interest and played a major role in Reformation thought and the development of early modern philosophy.
Skepticism in Ancient India
Ajñāna (Sanskrit: अज्ञान) was one of the nastika or “heterodox” schools of ancient Indian philosophy, and the ancient school of radical Indian skepticism. It was a Sramana movement and a major rival of early Buddhism, Jainism and the Ajivika School. They have been recorded in Buddhist and Jain texts. They held that it was impossible to obtain knowledge of metaphysical nature or ascertain the truth value of philosophical propositions; and even if knowledge was possible, it was useless and disadvantageous for final salvation. They were specialized in refutation without propagating any positive doctrine of their own. Sanjaya Belatthiputta was one of the major proponents of this school of thought.
A number of similarities have been noted between the Pyrrhonist works of Sextus Empiricius and that of Nagarjuana, the Madhyamaka Buddhist philosopher from the 2nd or 3rd century CE. According to modern scholars, Ajnana, (Indian Philosophy) which upheld radical skepticism, may have been a more powerful influence on Pyrrho than Buddhism.
Religion
Religious skepticism generally refers to doubting given religious beliefs or claims. Historically, religious skepticism can be traced back to Xenophanes, who doubted many religious claims of his time. For example, a religious skeptic might believe that Jesus existed, while questioning claims that he was the messiah or performed miracles. Religious skepticism is not the same as atheism or agnosticism, though these often do involve skeptical attitudes toward religion and philosophical theology (for example, towards divine omnipotence). Religious people are generally skeptical about claims of other religions, at least when the two denominations conflict concerning some stated belief. Additionally, they may also be skeptical of the claims made by atheists.
Science
Scientific or empirical (based on observation or experience) skeptic is one who questions beliefs on the basis of scientific understanding and empirical evidence.
Scientific skepticism may discard beliefs pertaining to purported phenomena not subject to reliable observation and thus not systematic or testable empirically. Most scientists, being scientific skeptics, test the reliability of certain kinds of claims by subjecting them to a systematic investigation using some type of the scientific method. As a result, a number of claims are considered as “pseudoscience”, if they are found to improperly apply or ignore the fundamental aspects of the scientific method.
Skepticism during Enlightenment
Skepticism was common in Enlightenment philosophy. Being skeptical meant that a person was able to think critically and methodically. Be able to think methodically lead to the creation of science. Not only scientific thinking was created, philosophical thinking was more rationalized by the philosopher Rene Descartes. In his book Meditations on First Philosophy (1641), Descartes explores skepticism on a radical level that target ideas that were derived from learning and experiences of the Enlightenment.
Religion was often as the devil during the Enlightenment. Various features of religion were often deemed bizarre to the enlightenment thinkers. Religion aspects such as superstitions, religious fantasies and supernaturalism were condemned in the era. In fact, there were several attempts to purify religion and make it a clear and natural form of Religion. Voltaire, a critic of the Enlightenment period has made several comments pertaining to Christianity and its role with churches in this time period. Voltaire personally attacks the Catholic Church in France, and blames the church’s actions.
David Hume was among the most influential proponents of philosophical skepticism during the Age of Enlightenment and one of the most notable voices of the Scottish Enlightenment and British Empiricism.
Conclusion
Skepticism has been responsible for many important developments in science and philosophy. It has also inspired several contemporary social movements. Religious skepticism advocates for doubt concerning basic religious principles, such as immortality, providence, and revelation. Scientific skepticism advocates for testing beliefs for reliability, by subjecting them to systematic investigation using the scientific method, to discover empirical evidence for them. The internet is full of all kinds of bogus ideas on all sorts of topics. It is prudent to be a skeptic.
Sources
- Will Durant. The Story of Civilization, part- 11; The Life of Greece. Simon and Schuster, New York: 1939.
- 2- Wikipedia.org/skepticism
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